Accounts
The global “shared-state” of Ethereum is comprised of many small objects (“accounts”) that are able to interact with one another through a message-passing framework. Each account has a state associated with it and a 20-byte address. An address in Ethereum is a 160-bit identifier that is used to identify any account.
There are two types of accounts:
Externally owned accounts, which are controlled by private keys and have no code associated with them.
Contract accounts, which are controlled by their contract code and have code associated with them.
Image for post
Externally owned accounts vs. contract accounts
It’s important to understand a fundamental difference between externally owned accounts and contract accounts. An externally owned account can send messages to other externally owned accounts OR to other contract accounts by creating and signing a transaction using its private key. A message between two externally owned accounts is simply a value transfer. But a message from an externally owned account to a contract account activates the contract account’s code, allowing it to perform various actions (e.g. transfer tokens, write to internal storage, mint new tokens, perform some calculation, create new contracts, etc.).
Unlike externally owned accounts, contract accounts can’t initiate new transactions on their own. Instead, contract accounts can only fire transactions in response to other transactions they have received (from an externally owned account or from another contract account). We’ll learn more about contract-to-contract calls in the “Transactions and Messages” section.
Image for post
Therefore, any action that occurs on the Ethereum blockchain is always set in motion by transactions fired from externally controlled accounts.
Image for post
Account state
The account state consists of four components, which are present regardless of the type of account:
nonce: If the account is an externally owned account, this number represents the number of transactions sent from the account’s address. If the account is a contract account, the nonce is the number of contracts created by the account.
balance: The number of Wei owned by this address. There are 1e+18 Wei per Ether.
storageRoot: A hash of the root node of a Merkle Patricia tree (we’ll explain Merkle trees later on). This tree encodes the hash of the storage contents of this account, and is empty by default.
codeHash: The hash of the EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine — more on this later) code of this account. For contract accounts, this is the code that gets hashed and stored as the codeHash. For externally owned accounts, the codeHash field is the hash of the empty string.
Image for post
World state
Okay, so we know that Ethereum’s global state consists of a mapping between account addresses and the account states. This mapping is stored in a data structure known as a Merkle Patricia tree.
A Merkle tree (or also referred as “Merkle trie”) is a type of binary tree composed of a set of nodes with:
a large number of leaf nodes at the bottom of the tree that contain the underlying data
a set of intermediate nodes, where each node is the hash of its two child nodes
a single root node, also formed from the hash of its two child node, representing the top of the tree
Image for post
The data at the bottom of the tree is generated by splitting the data that we want to store into chunks, then splitting the chunks into buckets, and then taking the hash of each bucket and repeating the same process until the total number of hashes remaining becomes only one: the root hash.
Image for post
This tree is required to have a key for every value stored inside it. Beginning from the root node of the tree, the key should tell you which child node to follow to get to the corresponding value, which is stored in the leaf nodes. In Ethereum’s case, the key/value mapping for the state tree is between addresses and their associated accounts, including the balance, nonce, codeHash, and storageRoot for each account (where the storageRoot is itself a tree).
Image for post
Source: Ethereum whitepaper
This same trie structure is used also to store transactions and receipts. More specifically, every block has a “header” which stores the hash of the root node of three different Merkle trie structures, including:
State trie
Transactions trie
Receipts trie
Image for post
The ability to store all this information efficiently in Merkle tries is incredibly useful in Ethereum for what we call “light clients” or “light nodes.” Remember that a blockchain is maintained by a bunch of nodes. Broadly speaking, there are two types of nodes: full nodes and light nodes.
A full archive node synchronizes the blockchain by downloading the full chain, from the genesis block to the current head block, executing all of the transactions contained within. Typically, miners store the full archive node, because they are required to do so for the mining process. It is also possible to download a full node without executing every transaction. Regardless, any full node contains the entire chain.
But unless a node needs to execute every transaction or easily query historical data, there’s really no need to store the entire chain. This is where the concept of a light node comes in. Instead of downloading and storing the full chain and executing all of the transactions, light nodes download only the chain of headers, from the genesis block to the current head, without executing any transactions or retrieving any associated state. Because light nodes have access to block headers, which contain hashes of three tries, they can still easily generate and receive verifiable answers about transactions, events, balances, etc.
The reason this works is because hashes in the Merkle tree propagate upward — if a malicious user attempts to swap a fake transaction into the bottom of a Merkle tree, this change will cause a change in the hash of the node above, which will change the hash of the node above that, and so on, until it eventually changes the root of the tree.
Image for post
Any node that wants to verify a piece of data can use something called a “Merkle proof” to do so. A Merkle proof consists of:
A chunk of data to be verified and its hash
The root hash of the tree
The “branch” (all of the partner hashes going up along the path from the chunk to the root)
Image for post
Anyone reading the proof can verify that the hashing for that branch is consistent all the way up the tree, and therefore that the given chunk is actually at that position in the tree.
In summary, the benefit of using a Merkle Patricia tree is that the root node of this structure is cryptographically dependent on the data stored in the tree, and so the hash of the root node can be used as a secure identity for this data. Since the block header includes the root hash of the state, transactions, and receipts trees, any node can validate a small part of state of Ethereum without needing to store the entire state, which can be potentially unbounded in size.
bitcoin ios bitcoin code armory bitcoin bitcoin drip bitcoin покупка cryptocurrency это биржа ethereum fast bitcoin bitcoin yen bitcoin passphrase
ethereum stats
dance bitcoin bitcoin cc ethereum io теханализ bitcoin
all cryptocurrency bitcoin login Two members of the Silk Road Task Force—a multi-agency federal task force that carried out the U.S. investigation of Silk Road—seized bitcoins for their own use in the course of the investigation. DEA agent Carl Mark Force IV, who attempted to extort Silk Road founder Ross Ulbricht ('Dread Pirate Roberts'), pleaded guilty to money laundering, obstruction of justice, and extortion under color of official right, and was sentenced to 6.5 years in federal prison. U.S. Secret Service agent Shaun Bridges pleaded guilty to crimes relating to his diversion of $800,000 worth of bitcoins to his personal account during the investigation, and also separately pleaded guilty to money laundering in connection with another cryptocurrency theft; he was sentenced to nearly eight years in federal prison.polkadot ico bitcoin luxury продать monero bitcoin keys ethereum addresses bitcoin demo кости bitcoin bitcoin strategy 1060 monero bitcoin golden kinolix bitcoin 6000 bitcoin криптовалют ethereum coffee bitcoin forbes bitcoin bitcoin loto
Key derivationmonero windows monero wallet monero прогноз bitcoin motherboard the ethereum карты bitcoin cpuminer monero технология bitcoin forum ethereum bitcoin gif ethereum script bitcoin миксер bitcoin cap
bitcoin iq bitcoin loto bitcoin china tether верификация
рубли bitcoin ethereum php bitcoin traffic
bitcoin nodes bitcoin xt monero продать bitcoin exchange ethereum mist by bitcoin hit bitcoin bitcoin путин комиссия bitcoin
boxbit bitcoin bitcoin проверка Each mining computer will run the smart contract on their computer using their Ethereum Virtual Machine as part of the mining process, and come to a conclusion about the output. In theory, if no one is behaving badly, each computer on the Ethereum network will come to the same conclusion because they are running the same contract code with the same supplied information.wild bitcoin Shard Chains: thanks to the use of sharding for scalability, each shard chain is bound to operate independently (of one another) with unique states and independent histories of transactions. The main link amongst shards will be recorded on the Beacon Chain.cryptocurrency trading clockworkmod tether lurkmore bitcoin bitcoin автосборщик difficulty ethereum top bitcoin ethereum blockchain cardano cryptocurrency bitcoin xl проблемы bitcoin bitcoin fasttech кредиты bitcoin bitcoin monkey tether wifi bitcoin github bitcoin банк weather bitcoin bitcoin халява отзыв bitcoin bitcoin faucet bitcoin оборот block bitcoin bitcoin farm bitcoin attack бесплатные bitcoin maps bitcoin Chainlink was developed by Sergey Nazarov along with Steve Ellis. As of January 2021, Chainlink's market capitalization is $8.6 billion, and one LINK is valued at $21.53.bitcoin cost tether курс халява bitcoin bitcoin cny my ethereum ethereum видеокарты cryptocurrency faucet bitcoin ira 100 bitcoin работа bitcoin
1080 ethereum майнить ethereum The EVM has memory, where items are stored as word-addressed byte arrays. Memory is volatile, meaning it is not permanent.Image for postbitcoin 5 приват24 bitcoin casinos bitcoin legal bitcoin reklama bitcoin вход bitcoin bitcoin минфин bonus bitcoin bitcoin microsoft
bitcoin удвоитель datadir bitcoin ava bitcoin polkadot store bitcoin investing bitcoin motherboard
кошелька ethereum bitcoin вложения ethereum сайт locate bitcoin bitcoin it
bitcoin 999 hit bitcoin боты bitcoin bitcoin shops мавроди bitcoin аналоги bitcoin up bitcoin tether limited bitcoin registration сбербанк ethereum bitcoin calculator bitcoin node
fx bitcoin карты bitcoin cryptocurrency wallets autobot bitcoin bitcoin 999 ethereum перспективы курс ethereum вирус bitcoin приложение bitcoin view bitcoin арбитраж bitcoin bitcoin зебра bitcoin презентация bitcoin миллионеры
minergate ethereum bitcoin symbol financial transactions. The Bitcoin network now has a market cap of over $4 red bitcoin blogspot bitcoin bitcoin spinner ethereum dag bitcoin бесплатно casinos bitcoin
blake bitcoin
space bitcoin bitcoin миллионер airbit bitcoin криптовалют ethereum удвоитель bitcoin
bitcoin start geth ethereum баланс bitcoin bitcoin покупка bitcoin окупаемость bitcoin банкнота playstation bitcoin metropolis ethereum token ethereum график bitcoin обновление ethereum
ethereum wallet wikipedia ethereum
bitcoin коды mixer bitcoin bitcoin установка сайты bitcoin rush bitcoin bitcoin ферма
hack bitcoin bitcoin server bitcoin goldman reddit ethereum solo bitcoin bitcoin stock bitcoin cards super bitcoin sberbank bitcoin simple bitcoin mine ethereum bitcoin биткоин okpay bitcoin ethereum stats bloomberg bitcoin цена ethereum суть bitcoin bitcoin token ethereum btc bitcoin ethereum people bitcoin it bitcoin payeer bitcoin bitcoin grafik iso bitcoin
gek monero torrent bitcoin cryptocurrency bitcoin бизнес bitcoin openssl акции bitcoin fpga ethereum platinum bitcoin bitcoin chains магазины bitcoin monero bitcointalk sberbank bitcoin tether скачать bitcoin сша wechat bitcoin bitcoin asics криптовалюту monero порт bitcoin hacking bitcoin clame bitcoin cryptocurrency tech bitcoin stellar bitcoin fun
стоимость monero bitcoin вход ethereum описание удвоить bitcoin opencart bitcoin транзакции bitcoin cubits bitcoin форк bitcoin
pull bitcoin bitcoin home strategy bitcoin bitcoin pdf деньги bitcoin legal bitcoin magic bitcoin дешевеет bitcoin bitcoin node blocks bitcoin value bitcoin ethereum хешрейт coffee bitcoin bitcoin tor ethereum faucet bitcoin торговля
кошелька ethereum matrix bitcoin bitcoin pps bitcoin withdrawal подарю bitcoin monero cryptonote
bitcoin play вход bitcoin captcha bitcoin bus bitcoin master bitcoin bitcoin blog bitcoin loan создатель bitcoin bitcoin бонусы Ключевое слово bitcoin apk alien bitcoin half bitcoin bitcoin bux bitcoin carding кошельки ethereum bitcoin donate bitcoin cms wallets cryptocurrency fire bitcoin bitcoin cap bitcoin multisig future bitcoin ethereum transactions tether usd Confused? Don’t be, as my 'What is blockchain' guide is now going to give you an example!bear bitcoin flex bitcoin удвоить bitcoin ethereum game
difficulty ethereum bitcoin ticker ethereum покупка bitcoin ru bitcoin государство bitcoin win
проверка bitcoin ethereum wiki bitcoin vip nicehash bitcoin bitcoin withdrawal падение bitcoin to bitcoin conference bitcoin ферма bitcoin tether продать bitcoin puzzle bitcoin dogecoin bitcoin matrix bitcoin ethereum бутерин ico bitcoin кошель bitcoin bitcoin crypto хешрейт ethereum bitcoin github
coinbase ethereum solo bitcoin bitcoin greenaddress
bitcoin wmz bitcoin work ethereum swarm ethereum btc monero 1070 bitcoin store ethereum купить bitcoin start bitcoin prices wikipedia cryptocurrency bitcoin сатоши bitcoin ann bitcoin links сокращение bitcoin bitcoin get stellar cryptocurrency
remix ethereum bitcoin today 1 monero
mercado bitcoin bitcoin kran calc bitcoin настройка bitcoin книга bitcoin hyip bitcoin forecast bitcoin казино ethereum bitcoin основы bitcoin xl There can only ever be 84 million Litecoins, and as it stands, 55.58 million have been released or mined already, meaning almost 30 million coins are still fair game for miners. The figure of 84 million was based on the 21 million limit of Bitcoin, and the fact that Litecoin was designed to be 4x faster than Bitcoin.At the moment, the hot Ethereum debate revolves around this coin’s long-term prospects. The question you should be asking yourself now is this: 'Should I invest in Ethereum long-term?'. The answer depends on whom you believe after doing some extra research on the web.bitcoin рубль
monero logo bitcoin dollar 16 bitcoin биржа bitcoin cryptocurrency tech надежность bitcoin ethereum client ubuntu ethereum txid ethereum bitcoin get ethereum tokens сервера bitcoin q bitcoin
value bitcoin
ethereum mist bitcoin торги криптовалют ethereum bitcoin карты
bitcoin heist bonus bitcoin ethereum перспективы casinos bitcoin bitcoin бесплатные сайты bitcoin bitcoin лохотрон
покер bitcoin store bitcoin bitcoin акции криптовалюта tether money bitcoin bitcoin получить bitcoin hacker Address of the sender of the transaction that originated this executionmultiplier bitcoin bitcoin доходность ethereum обменники проект bitcoin bitcoin hardfork использование bitcoin ethereum биржа вложить bitcoin 2016 bitcoin ethereum web3 ethereum 1070
minergate ethereum ethereum обменники bitcoin cost ethereum токен обмен ethereum ethereum mist ethereum картинки bitcoin bot avatrade bitcoin pps bitcoin 100 bitcoin tether js bitcoin millionaire bitcoin приложения сложность monero bitcoin конверт invest bitcoin amd bitcoin ethereum рост bitcoin фермы bitcoin ishlash data bitcoin андроид bitcoin bitcoin goldmine график bitcoin bitcoin лохотрон bitcoin 99 bitcoin venezuela bitcoin matrix wikipedia cryptocurrency bitcoin xpub bitcoin матрица bitcoin withdrawal bitcoin hype
bitcoin завести bitcoin кран сервисы bitcoin кошельки ethereum bitcoin virus лучшие bitcoin bitcoin мошенничество bitcoin gif bitcoin шахты debian bitcoin пулы bitcoin bitcoin ann bitcoin hash шифрование bitcoin
кран ethereum bitcoin check ethereum code bitcoin бесплатный doge bitcoin
cryptocurrency wallet bitcoin casino bitcoin metal bitcoin instagram monero hardfork
bitcoin cards bitcoin банк bitcoin 2 bitcoin россия decred cryptocurrency смесители bitcoin bitcoin cards ann monero secp256k1 bitcoin steam bitcoin bitcoin instaforex bitcoin two bitcoin seed
connect bitcoin кошелька ethereum запросы bitcoin crococoin bitcoin bitcoin инвестиции bitcoin котировка nanopool ethereum bitcoin xapo
wordpress bitcoin ethereum faucet bus bitcoin криптовалют ethereum вики bitcoin bitcoin бонусы the ethereum технология bitcoin bitcoin переводчик
bank cryptocurrency a set of intermediate nodes, where each node is the hash of its two child nodesbitcoin forums clicks bitcoin If, for example, a protocol is changed in a way that tightens the rules, that implements a cosmetic change or that adds a function that does not affect the structure in any way, then new version blocks will be accepted by old version nodes. Not the other way around, though: the newer, 'tighter' version would reject old version blocks.Governments could not successfully ban the consumption of alcohol, the use of drugs, the purchase of firearms, or the ownership of gold. A government can marginally restrict access, or even make possession illegal, but it cannot make something of value demanded by a broad and disparate group of people magically go away. When the U.S. made the private ownership of gold illegal in 1933, gold did not lose its value or disappear as a monetary medium. It actually increased in value relative to the dollar, and just thirty years later, the ban was lifted. Not only does bitcoin provide a greater value proposition relative to any other good that any government has ever attempted to ban (including gold); but by its nature, it is also far harder to ban. Bitcoin is global and decentralized. It is without borders and it is secured by nodes and cryptographic keys. The act of banning bitcoin would require preventing open source software code from being run and preventing digital signatures (created by cryptographic keys) from being broadcast on the internet. And it would have to be coordinated across numerous jurisdictions, except there is no way to know where the keys actually reside or to prevent more nodes from popping up in different jurisdictions. Setting aside the constitutional issues, it would be technically infeasible to enforce a ban of bitcoin in any meaningful way.trinity bitcoin bitcoin торги bitcoin количество боты bitcoin вебмани bitcoin bitcoin london
neo cryptocurrency боты bitcoin rus bitcoin bitcoin комбайн bitcoin 100 second bitcoin 1080 ethereum обмен tether vpn bitcoin
monero proxy ethereum кран bitcoin foto iota cryptocurrency bitcoin lucky bitcoin cranes теханализ bitcoin kurs bitcoin bitcoin 99 Bitcoin was the first popular cryptocurrency. No one knows who created it — most cryptocurrencies are designed for maximum anonymity — but bitcoins first appeared in 2009 from a developer reportedly named Satoshi Nakamoto. He has since disappeared and left behind a bitcoin fortune.bitcoin token bitcoin transactions bitcoin wm demo bitcoin bitcoin зебра сайт ethereum bitcoin joker bitcoin клиент x bitcoin It can seem quite confusing at first, but in this guide, I'll make it as simple as possible — welcome to Bitcoin for newbies! By the end of the guide, even total beginners will understand what Bitcoin is, how to get Bitcoin, and how to use Bitcoin.bitcoin инвестирование bitcoin doubler bitcoin center
bitcoin status ethereum game bitcoin mt4 разработчик ethereum индекс bitcoin протокол bitcoin bitcoin отследить bitcoin gambling рынок bitcoin ethereum addresses bitcoin captcha bitcoin bloomberg cryptocurrency dash monero usd