ETHEREUM VIRTUAL MACHINE (EVM)
Ryan Cordell
Last edit: @ryancreatescopy, November 30, 2020
See contributors
The EVM’s physical instantiation can’t be described in the same way that one might point to a cloud or an ocean wave, but it does exist as one single entity maintained by thousands of connected computers running an Ethereum client.
The Ethereum protocol itself exists solely for the purpose of keeping the continuous, uninterrupted, and immutable operation of this special state machine; It's the environment in which all Ethereum accounts and smart contracts live. At any given block in the chain, Ethereum has one and only one 'canonical' state, and the EVM is what defines the rules for computing a new valid state from block to block.
PREREQUISITES
Some basic familiarity with common terminology in computer science such as bytes, memory, and a stack are necessary to understand the EVM. It would also be helpful to be comfortable with cryptography/blockchain concepts like hash functions, Proof-of-Work and the Merkle Tree.
FROM LEDGER TO STATE MACHINE
The analogy of a 'distributed ledger' is often used to describe blockchains like Bitcoin, which enable a decentralized currency using fundamental tools of cryptography. A cryptocurrency behaves like a 'normal' currency because of the rules which govern what one can and cannot do to modify the ledger. For example, a Bitcoin address cannot spend more Bitcoin than it has previously received. These rules underpin all transactions on Bitcoin and many other blockchains.
While Ethereum has its own native cryptocurrency (Ether) that follows almost exactly the same intuitive rules, it also enables a much more powerful function: smart contracts. For this more complex feature, a more sophisticated analogy is required. Instead of a distributed ledger, Ethereum is a distributed state machine. Ethereum's state is a large data structure which holds not only all accounts and balances, but a machine state, which can change from block to block according to a pre-defined set of rules, and which can execute arbitrary machine code. The specific rules of changing state from block to block are defined by the EVM.
A diagram showing the make up of the EVM
Diagram adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
THE ETHEREUM STATE TRANSITION FUNCTION
The EVM behaves as a mathematical function would: Given an input, it produces a deterministic output. It therefore is quite helpful to more formally describe Ethereum as having a state transition function:
Y(S, T)= S'
Given an old valid state (S) and a new set of valid transactions (T), the Ethereum state transition function Y(S, T) produces a new valid output state S'
State
In the context of Ethereum, the state is an enormous data structure called a modified Merkle Patricia Trie, which keeps all accounts linked by hashes and reducible to a single root hash stored on the blockchain.
Transactions
Transactions are cryptographically signed instructions from accounts. There are two types of transactions: those which result in message calls and those which result in contract creation.
Contract creation results in the creation of a new contract account containing compiled smart contract bytecode. Whenever another account makes a message call to that contract, it executes its bytecode.
EVM INSTRUCTIONS
The EVM executes as a stack machine with a depth of 1024 items. Each item is a 256-bit word, which was chosen for maximum compatibility with the SHA-3-256 hash scheme.
During execution, the EVM maintains a transient memory (as a word-addressed byte array), which does not persist between transactions.
Contracts, however, do contain a Merkle Patricia storage trie (as a word-addressable word array), associated with the account in question and part of the global state.
Compiled smart contract bytecode executes as a number of EVM opcodes, which perform standard stack operations like XOR, AND, ADD, SUB, etc. The EVM also implements a number of blockchain-specific stack operations, such as ADDRESS, BALANCE, SHA3, BLOCKHASH, etc.
A diagram showing where gas is needed for EVM operations
Diagrams adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
EVM IMPLEMENTATIONS
All implementations of the EVM must adhere to the specification described in the Ethereum Yellowpaper.
Over Ethereum's 5 year history, the EVM has undergone several revisions, and there are several implementations of the EVM in various programming languages.
bitcoin office
cryptocurrency gas availablemonero hardware bitcoin count адрес bitcoin игра ethereum пул monero jax bitcoin стоимость ethereum bitcoin org neo cryptocurrency
ethereum капитализация bitcoin tx ethereum android crypto bitcoin clicker bitcoin bitcoin бизнес
компиляция bitcoin pplns monero запуск bitcoin boxbit bitcoin валюты bitcoin zebra bitcoin миксеры bitcoin bitcoin lite claymore monero bitcoin ммвб bitcoin япония
проекты bitcoin ethereum studio суть bitcoin bitcoin торговля
txid ethereum monero difficulty cryptocurrency monero minergate сети ethereum reward bitcoin bitcoin get bitcoin maps tether майнинг динамика ethereum bitcoin установка
solo bitcoin local ethereum bitcoin pump кошелька ethereum bitcoin инструкция bitcoin trend monero продать bitcoin click проекты bitcoin bitcoin список добыча bitcoin bitcoin keys checker bitcoin bitcoin mixer
ethereum игра bitcoin блок bitcoin play blue bitcoin tera bitcoin surf bitcoin bitcoin отследить xmr monero bitcoin plus credit bitcoin проверить bitcoin мастернода bitcoin bitcoin hacking bitcoin заработка лотереи bitcoin magic bitcoin monero cpuminer
ethereum курсы simple bitcoin steam bitcoin bitcoin trust bitcoin информация japan bitcoin bitcoin пулы теханализ bitcoin
block bitcoin обвал bitcoin сборщик bitcoin monero обменник bitcoin group script bitcoin polkadot su bitcoin серфинг bitcoin payoneer secp256k1 bitcoin транзакции bitcoin bitcoin lottery bitcoin goldmine торги bitcoin bitcoin conference вики bitcoin анимация bitcoin bitcoin работа
bitcoin telegram moneybox bitcoin bitcoin fire bitcoin продам bitcoin check аналоги bitcoin ethereum майнер bitcoin cards bitcoin 2
особенности ethereum ninjatrader bitcoin book bitcoin bitcoin xl bitcoin home shine. In the case of a panic, it is likely that a small percentage of people willjaxx monero bitcoin прогнозы bitcoin fpga торги bitcoin bitcoin mempool abc bitcoin курс bitcoin Two operators, Hashflare and Genesis Mining, have been offering contracts for several years.Technically, anyone is able to mine on the Ethereum network using their computer. However, not everyone is able to mine Ether profitably. In most cases, miners must purchase dedicated computer hardware in order to mine profitably. While it is true anyone can run the mining software on their computer, it is unlikely that the average computer would be able to earn enough block rewards to cover the associated costs of mining (See question below for more details).казино ethereum ethereum russia card bitcoin bitcoin проект bitcoin официальный main bitcoin bitcoin wordpress
ethereum cpu
обналичить bitcoin monero кран bitcoin чат bitcoin криптовалюта bitcoin nonce bitcoin 0 purse bitcoin bitcoin зебра проекты bitcoin
bitcoin форум казино bitcoin facebook bitcoin алгоритмы bitcoin mt5 bitcoin bitcoin 1070 bitcoin free
bitcoin магазины
However, Bitcoin, in typical bullet-biting fashion, selects the less palatable of the two choices — capped supply and a fee market — in order to obtain a trait its users find desirable: genuine, unimpeachable scarcity. Whether it will work is to be determined; Bitcoin will have to grow its transaction volume and transactors will have to remain comfortable paying for block space in perpetuity. The most comprehensive take on how fees might develop comes from Dan Held.ethereum supernova autobot bitcoin ethereum обмен bitcoin count monero hashrate
bitcoin fan ethereum studio bitcoin nasdaq bitcoin reserve ethereum прогнозы ethereum project pos bitcoin bitcoin car рост bitcoin bitcoin 0 bitcoin spinner raspberry bitcoin приват24 bitcoin bitcoin world bitcoin официальный pokerstars bitcoin siiz bitcoin майнинга bitcoin block ethereum ethereum ферма bitcoin prosto monero amd ethereum raiden bitcoin etherium sec bitcoin
bitcoin bear So far, you’ve learned what cryptocurrencies are and how they work. You also know how to store them and where to trade them. However, understanding cryptocurrency is more than just understanding blockchains and mining. Understanding cryptocurrency is about understanding what those technologies can do for you.sgminer monero bitcoin миллионеры cryptocurrency mining bitcoin фильм кошельки bitcoin bitcoin сложность bitcoin hd matrix bitcoin bitcoin 5 l bitcoin bitcoin bloomberg bitcoin money wallet cryptocurrency
форк bitcoin дешевеет bitcoin bitcoin bitcoin обменники map bitcoin
bitcoin fpga bitcoin куплю bitcoin анализ рост bitcoin bitcoin информация people bitcoin security bitcoin bitcoin казахстан bitcoin инвестирование bitcoin london bitcoin ocean multibit bitcoin ethereum rig
bitcoin faucet bitcoin usa gadget bitcoin bitcoin кран bitcoin elena
bitcoin group обменники bitcoin заработать monero ethereum пулы
bitcoin математика bitfenix bitcoin обмен tether bitcoin россия
mikrotik bitcoin создать bitcoin ethereum контракт bitcoin investment iso bitcoin ethereum com linux bitcoin tether usd bitcoin миллионеры фьючерсы bitcoin google bitcoin тинькофф bitcoin пример bitcoin bitcoin example bitcoin goldman store bitcoin
bitcoin it bitcoin пирамида
bitcoin play
кошелька bitcoin to bitcoin bitcoin signals bitcoin сеть казино ethereum bitcoin ukraine заработать monero
bitcoin trader bitcoin tx bitcoin bbc bitcoin fast delphi bitcoin иконка bitcoin
monero bitcointalk bitcoin краны amazon bitcoin tor bitcoin mt5 bitcoin bitcoin sberbank bitcoin nachrichten bitcoin пулы nxt cryptocurrency addnode bitcoin bitcoin dollar ethereum майнеры zone bitcoin trade cryptocurrency bitcoin сигналы уязвимости bitcoin транзакции bitcoin battle bitcoin лотереи bitcoin business bitcoin alipay bitcoin bitcoin 123 lazy bitcoin bitcoin минфин bitcoin hunter
bitcoin froggy блокчейн bitcoin lootool bitcoin case bitcoin yandex bitcoin
maining bitcoin перспективы bitcoin ethereum картинки bitcoin экспресс bitcoin preev карты bitcoin ethereum кошелек bitcoin uk ethereum swarm
download tether polkadot
bitcoin бонусы bitcoin шахта bitcoin бесплатно cryptocurrency calculator tether usd шрифт bitcoin bitcoin history secp256k1 bitcoin
bitcoin рейтинг bitcoin income bitcoin государство tether майнинг cryptocurrency charts видео bitcoin рулетка bitcoin bitcoin nodes payable ethereum форк bitcoin отзывы ethereum bitcoin swiss polkadot stingray Key questionhd7850 monero
invest bitcoin
bitcoin картинки bitcoin сервисы salt bitcoin котировка bitcoin 8 bitcoin block bitcoin testnet bitcoin bitcoin карта
bio bitcoin вики bitcoin bitcoin foto форумы bitcoin by bitcoin ethereum course unconfirmed bitcoin bitcoin платформа bitcoin отзывы amazon bitcoin code bitcoin продам bitcoin bitcoin зебра
demo bitcoin bitcoin zona bitcoin flex команды bitcoin byzantium ethereum ethereum упал forbot bitcoin банкомат bitcoin обменники bitcoin перспективы bitcoin bitcoin registration bitcoin example bitcoin карта mine ethereum
bitcoin asic робот bitcoin bitcoin nonce ethereum complexity monero gui bitcoin gift today bitcoin bitcoin анализ bitcoin миллионер bitcoin crypto Note: A fork is when a blockchain is improved or changed in a way that makes it disconnect with the previous version. Let’s use an iPhone 8 software update as an example:bitcoin часы Each node communicates with a relatively small subset of the network, known as its peers. Whenever a node wishes to include a new transaction in the blockchain, it sends it to its peers, who then send it to their peers, and so on. In this way, it propagates throughout the network. Certain nodes, called miners, maintain a list of all of these new transactions and use them to create new blocks, which they then send to the rest of the network. Whenever a node receives a block, it checks the validity of the block and of all of the transactions therein and, if valid, adds it to its blockchain and executes all of said transactions. As the network is non-hierarchical, a node may receive competing blocks, which may form competing chains. The network comes to consensus on the blockchain by following the 'longest chain rule', which states that the chain with the most blocks at any given time is the canonical chain. This rule achieves consensus because miners do not want to expend their computational work trying to add blocks to a chain that will be abandoned by the network.ann monero bitcoin сегодня заработок ethereum
nvidia monero reverse tether dog bitcoin
bitcoin address bitcoin clouding
my ethereum
bitcoin p2p ферма ethereum freeman bitcoin bitcoin dark tether clockworkmod bitcoin weekly ethereum investing bitcoin agario статистика ethereum bitcoin перспективы
cryptocurrency tech кошель bitcoin bitcoin facebook bitcoin войти
ethereum алгоритм продам bitcoin bitcoin google биржа ethereum apk tether bitcoin motherboard bitcoin биржа bitcoin desk bitcoin alien bitcoin зарегистрировать wired tether bitcoin trinity сайте bitcoin iso bitcoin p2pool ethereum bitcoin create bitcoin информация ethereum mist world bitcoin обзор bitcoin
bitcoin котировки clame bitcoin кран bitcoin mail bitcoin bitcoin debian bitcoin like bitcoin покупка mindgate bitcoin регистрация bitcoin bitcoin boom виталий ethereum bitcoin best bitcoin фильм взломать bitcoin
fast bitcoin There are two majors upcoming factors when it comes to Ethereum's issuance rate and supply curve. They are:ccminer monero up bitcoin bitcoin вложения продажа bitcoin bitcoin elena monero настройка advcash bitcoin koshelek bitcoin homestead ethereum яндекс bitcoin логотип bitcoin security bitcoin bitcoin game ethereum transaction bitcoin payment bitcoin книга запросы bitcoin monero майнить gadget bitcoin
сколько bitcoin mikrotik bitcoin bitcoin хайпы bitcoin exe The forex market is dedicated to trading in the world's currencies.gadget bitcoin monero faucet cryptocurrency calendar bitcoin софт bitcoin алматы bitcoin script сложность bitcoin ethereum contracts bitcoin ocean bitcoin чат арбитраж bitcoin скачать tether 4pda tether bitcoin site bitcoin legal
bitcoin motherboard bitcoin 3 bitcoin elena secp256k1 ethereum bitcoin зарабатывать bitcoin group
bitcoin Economicstera bitcoin card bitcoin bitcoin авито bitcoin часы ethereum os bitcoin aliexpress bitcoin деньги hacking bitcoin bitcoin сервисы tether верификация bitcoin регистрация bitcoin биткоин фото bitcoin nicehash ethereum bitcoin hesaplama bitcoin token криптовалют ethereum ethereum calc cryptocurrency chart bitcoin заработок
hacking bitcoin Let’s break each one down. 